First diagram out some reasonable facsimile of the possible combinations (diagram or table will suffice -- see notes for diagram). Here is a table:

We should see four kinds if the alleles for behavior and morphology recombine in a random fashion and they are listed above.

The net result of selection is "correlational" in that traits like behavior and morphology become non-randomly coupled because certain combinations of snakes/morphology are more easily detected or located by predators, while others rely on in essence optical illusions that allow the snake to escape (rev/blot and strait/stripes.

Hamiltons equation is given by W or inclusive fitness:

W = direct effect of behavior on fitness + sum(indirect effects on relatives * coefficient of relatedness).

Social hymenoptera are predisposed to altruism, because the average coefficient of relatedness is 0.75. This is because a male is haploid and contributes an exact copy to his daughters (coefficient of relatedness through sire is 1) while the mother generates the normal 0.5 coefficient of relatedness for a typical diploid. Thus, two sisters would have an average coefficient of relatedness of (1+0.5)/2 = 0.75.

The logic: By increasing the average coefficient of relatedness, a sister (worker) is more pre-disposed to sacrifice fitness to help a sister (queen). In the cause of some social hymenoptera this amounts to giving up reproduction to allow the queen to reproduce for the hive (eusocial colony).

Two critical conditions for sympatric speciation are:

1. positive assortative mating (necessary explain what it is or diagram -- e.g., choosy female diagram and male traits).
2. hybrid unfitness (necessary explain what it is or diagram)

The hybrid unfitness selects females for the evolution of a pre-mating isolating mechanisms. Any female that mates with the wrong species and produces hybrid (unfit) progeny is at a severe fitness disadvantage compared to a female that evolves mate choice behavior.

However, mate choice behavior usually involves some kind of trait in the male, which in the case of sympatric speciation must be different between the males in the two hybridizing species.

From the flip side a male benefits by having a highly discriminating tail, largely because he does not produce unfit progeny.

b) Describe how learning as a cognitive process, and memory as a cognitive process limit the solutions that animals can come up with from the point of view of optimal foraging? Do these processes constrain optimal foraging and if so, why?

Diagram of marginal value theorem (either the classic with a tangent or the alternate with an optimum).

b) learning how many flowers to visit is a constraint on optimal foraging as optimal foraging theory assumes that animals are all knowing. An animal cannot forage optimally unless it has such knowledge.

c) memory -- This answer is best explained in terms of list lengths, and the obvious non-optimal story to explain is why animals are risk aversive even in the face of an equal reward. If they can only remember 1 item, they will avoid the risky flower which has a 2/3 prob of giving them nothing. Eventually they will visit one and visit the average flower thereafter. If the bee had a longer memory list length, then it could discern that the flowers were equal on average. Three flower list length would be more than enough.

Yes they constrain optimal foraging for the reasons given in each answer.

Many of you did not specify which was a control and which was an experiment and deductions were made.

A simple control would suffice, follow the natural movements of the scout and the cascading effect on foragers. The best control was a situation in which you manipulate where and in what direction the flowers can be found.

One experiment: cover the hive with plexiglas -- > the scout knows in which direction she came from, but has no cues in the hive to communicate the direction to the foragers and they fly off in random directions.

Another experiment: Block out direct sun -- > the scout has all the information (polarizing light which comes from above), direct sun is not required and the workers fly off in the appropriate direction.

Your diagram must include an ethogram, and you must explain that the waggle dance gives both direction information and distance information.

The males extended phenotype are attributes of his environment that are directly tied to his phenotype (e.g., territory quality). Two are possible: the shrikes and lizard "ornaments" on sticks -- > females settle on the male shrikes territory with more ornaments. OR the side-blotched lizard -- > manipulate rock, females move, and females gain direct benefits. It is necessary to do such experiments to determine which male phenotypic trait is being selected: is it his phenotype per se, or the territory quality. The benefits from the territory are direct benefit. Thus, other effects not include in the extended phenotype include some kind of indirect benefit (e.g., good genes) which is clearly not in his extended phenotype. Many of the answers erroneously included information related to the territory such as the degree of monogamy vs polygyny of the male -- clearly related to the territory.